Magnesium

An adult body has about 25 grams of magnesium in it, with 60% in the skeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular.

The important interaction between phosphate and magnesium ions makes magnesium essential to the basic nucleic acid chemistry of all cells of all known living organisms.

More than 300 enzymes require magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes using or synthesizing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and those that use other nucleotides to synthesize DNA and RNA.  The ATP molecule is normally found in a chelate with a magnesium ion.

• Used in conjunction with other minerals to build and maintain bones
• Critically essential for the nervous system and proper muscle function
  

It can be acquired from spices; nuts; seeds; whole grains; dry legumes; dark green, leafy vegetables; spinach; fish; shellfish; and beverages rich in magnesium like coffee, tea, and cocoa.

Phosphorus

In 2013, astronomers detected phosphorus in Cassiopeia A, which confirmed that phosphorust is produced in supernovae as a byproduct of supernova nucleosynthesis.

An average adult human contains about 0.7 kg of phosphorus, about 85–90% in bones and teeth in the form of apatite, and the remainder in soft tissues and extracellular fluids (~1%).  Humbling, huh? 0.7 kg of your body came from a supernova.  Stardust.  Inorganic phosphorus in the form of the phosphate PO3−4 is required for all known forms of life.

Phosphorus plays a major role in the structural framework of DNA and RNA.  Living cells use phosphate to transport cellular energy with adenosine triphosphate (ATP), necessary for every cellular process that uses energy.  ATP is also important for phosphorylation, a key regulatory event in cells.  Calcium phosphate salts assist in stiffening bones.

Phospholipids are the main structural components of all cellular membranes.  Every living cell is encased in a membrane that separates it from its surroundings.  Cellular membranes are composed of a phospholipid matrix and proteins

• Essential to proper functioning of the body's conversion of nutrients for energy
• Assists other elemental minerals to build and maintain bones and teeth
  

It can be acquired from the same sources providing protein, although proteins do not contain phosporus.  For example; dairy products; nuts; dry beans; whole grains; meat, poultry, fish; egg yolks

As a rule, if a person ingests sufficient protein and calcium, enough phosphorus is probably being consumed.

Potassium

Potassium is the eighth or ninth most common element by mass (0.2%) in the human body.  An average adult human body contains a total of about 120 g of potassium.  The human body has about as much potassium as it has sulfur and chlorine.  Only calcium and phosphorus are more abundant (with the exception of the CHON elements).

Potassium ions are present in a wide variety of proteins and enzymes.  Potassium ions are vital for the functioning of all living cells. The transfer of potassium ions across nerve cell membranes is necessary for normal nerve transmission; potassium deficiency and excess can each result in numerous signs and symptoms, including an abnormal heart rhythm and various electrocardiographic abnormalities.

• Essential for the body's regulation of blood pressure and heartbeat
• Essential for the regulation of the fluid balance in the body
• Critically essential for the nervous system

It can be acquired from fruits like bananas, oranges, and cantaloupes; meat, poultry, fish; dry beans; vegetables; and dairy products

Sodium

Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and exists in numerous minerals.

The free metal does not occur in nature, and must be prepared from compounds.  Many sodium salts are highly water-soluble, thus sodium ions have been leached by the action of water from the Earth's minerals over eons, making sodium and chlorine the most common dissolved elements by weight in the earth's oceans.

Sodium is an essential element for all animals and some plants.

A process known as the "sodium-potassium pump" allows living human cells to "pump" three sodium ions out of the cell in exchange for two potassium ions pumped in; comparing ion concentrations across the cell membrane, inside to outside, potassium measures about 40:1, and sodium, about 1:10.  In nerve cells, the electrical charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse - an action potential - when the charge is dissipated; sodium plays a key role in that process.

• Essential for the regulation of blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH
  
• Essential for the regulation of the fluid balance in the body

Sodium chloride (table salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative in such commodities as pickled preserves and jerky; for Americans, most sodium chloride comes from processed foods.

Other sources of sodium are its natural occurrence in food, like monosodium glutamate (MSG) and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and food additives like sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, and sodium benzoate.

Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, is a vitamin that is essential to the formation of two major coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide.

These coenzymes are involved in energy metabolism, cellular respiration, and antibody production, as well as normal growth and development; and are also required for the metabolism of niacin, vitamin B6, and folate.  Riboflavin is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and fats.

Riboflavin is involved in maintaining normal circulating levels of homocysteine; in riboflavin deficiency, homocysteine levels increase, elevating the risk of cardiovascular diseases.  Riboflavin is also often prescribed to treat corneal thinning, and taken orally, may reduce the incidence of migraine headaches in adults.

It can be acquired from dairy products; meat, poultry, fish; eggs; whole and fortified grains

Niacin (Vitamin B3)

Niacin, also known as vitamin B3, is a vitamin family that includes three forms or vitamers: nicotinamide (niacinamide), niacin (nicotinic acid), and nicotinamide riboside.  All three forms of vitamin B3 are converted within the body to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD).  NAD is required for human life and people are unable to make it within their bodies without either vitamin B3 or tryptophan.

Nicotinamide riboside was identified as a form of vitamin B3 in 2004.

Niacin (the nutrient) can be manufactured by plants and animals from the amino acid tryptophan.  Niacin is obtained in the diet from a variety of whole and processed foods, with highest contents in fortified packaged foods, meat, poultry, red fish such as tuna and salmon, lesser amounts in nuts, legumes and seeds.

In general, animal-sourced foods provide about 5–10 mg niacin per serving, although dairy foods and eggs have little.

Some plant-sourced foods such as nuts, legumes and grains provide about 2–5 mg niacin per serving, although in some grain products this naturally present niacin is largely bound to polysaccharides and glycopeptides, making it only about 30% bioavailable.

• Assists in maintenance of healthy skin and nervous system
• Assists normal digestion
• Assists in the conversion of nutrients for energy

It can be acquired from meat, poultry, fish; liver; shellfish; dry beans; nuts; whole and fortified grains

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 is one of the B vitamins, and thus is an essential nutrient.  Vitamin B6 is involved in many aspects of macronutrient metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, histamine synthesis, hemoglobin synthesis and function, and gene expression.

Animals cannot synthesize any of the various forms of the vitamin, and therefore must obtain it from their diet, either of plants, or other animals.  There is some absorption of the vitamin produced by intestinal bacteria, but this is not sufficient to meet needs.

For adult humans, recommendations from various countries' food regulatory agencies are in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 mg per day.  These same agencies also recognize ill effects from intakes that are too high, and so set safe upper limits, ranging from as low as 25 mg per day to as high as 100 mg per day depending on the country.

• Assists in maintenance of red blood cells
• Necessary for the use of carbohydrates and proteins
• Essential for nervous system health

It can be acquired from meat, poultry, fish, liver, dairy, eggs, and some grains, fruits, and vegitables; mollusks and crustaceans also contain vitamin B6, but at lower levels.  There is enough in a wide variety of plant foods so that a vegetarian or vegan diet does not put consumers at risk for deficiency.

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, is a one of eight water-soluble B vitamins involved in metabolism.  Vitamin B12 is the most chemically complex of all vitamins, and for humans, the only vitamin that must be sourced from animal-derived foods or from supplements.  It is required by animals, which use it as a cofactor in DNA synthesis, in both fatty acid and amino acid metabolism.  It is important in the normal functioning of the nervous system via its role in the synthesis of myelin, and in the circulatory system in the maturation of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

• Essential for maintenance of a healthy nervous system
• Assists in building and maintaining healthy red blood cells
• Essential in the conversion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

Most people in developed countries get enough B12 from the consumption of meat or foods with animal sources, but supplements and medications are readily available to treat and prevent B12 deficiency.

It can be acquired from meat, poultry, fish; clams; liver; eggs; and dairy products.  Many breakfast cereals are fortified with the B12.

Folate (Folic Acid)

Folate, also known as vitamin B9 and folacin, is one of the B vitamins.  Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolise amino acids necessary for cell division.  Folate is especially important during periods of frequent cell division and growth, such as infancy and pregnancy.

Folate deficiency hinders DNA synthesis and cell division, affecting hematopoietic cells and neoplasms the most because of their greater frequency of cell division.  RNA transcription and subsequent protein synthesis are less affected by folate deficiency, as the mRNA can be recycled and used again (as opposed to DNA synthesis, where a new genomic copy must be created).

A complex interaction occurs between folic acid, vitamin B12, and iron.  A deficiency of folic acid or vitamin B12 may mask the deficiency of iron; so when taken as dietary supplements, the three need to be in balance.

As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient.

It can be acquired from dark green, leafy vegetables; dry beans; orange juice; seeds; whole and fortified grains; fruits

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin that encompasses several vitamers that have vitamin C activity in animals.

Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue, the formation of collagen, and the enzymatic production of certain neurotransmitters.  It is required for the functioning of several enzymes and is important for immune system function, as well as functioning as an antioxidant (a reducing agent) by donating electrons to various enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions.

Most animals are able to synthesize their own vitamin C, however, apes (including humans) and monkeys (but not all primates), most bats, some rodents, and certain other animals must acquire it from dietary sources.

In humans, vitamin C deficiency leads to impaired collagen synthesis, contributing to the more severe symptoms of scurvy.

Although also present in other foods, the richest natural sources of vitamin C are fruits and vegetables.

Biotin

Biotin (or vitamin B7) is one of the water-soluble B vitamins.  It is involved in a wide range of metabolic processes, both in humans and in other organisms, primarily related to the utilization of fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids.

Once absorbed, sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) mediates biotin uptake into the liver.  SMVT also binds pantothenic acid, so high intakes of either of these vitamins can interfere with transport of the other.

It can be acquired from dark green, leafy vegetables; liver; egg yolks; whole grains

Pantothenic Acid

Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble B vitamin and therefore an essential nutrient.

All animals require pantothenic acid in order to synthesize coenzyme A (CoA) - essential for fatty acid metabolism - as well as to, in general, synthesize and metabolize proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

Coenzyme A is necessary in the reaction mechanism of the citric acid cycle.  This process is the body's primary catabolic pathway and is essential in breaking down the building blocks of the cell such as carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids for fuel.  CoA is also required in the formation of acyl carrier protein (ACP), which is required for fatty acid synthesis.  Its synthesis also connects with other vitamins such as thiamine and folic acid.

Pantothenic acid can be acquired from food sources such as animal-sourced foods, including dairy foods and eggs, as well as potatoes, tomato products, oat-cereals, sunflower seeds, avocado and mushrooms.  Whole grains are another source of the vitamin, but milling to make white rice or white flour removes much of the pantothenic acid, as it is found in the outer layers of whole grains.